I. Introduction
Ghana, like many developing nations, faces a significant and persistent challenge in ensuring sustainable employment for its burgeoning youth population. With over 57% of the nation’s populace under the age of 25, and a youth unemployment rate that has surged to approximately 32% (for ages 15-24) as of June 2024, the demographic dividend presents both an immense opportunity and a potential source of instability if not effectively harnessed.1 The issue of youth unemployment has been a long-standing concern, with successive governments recognizing its critical implications for national security and socio-economic stability.6
Since the dawn of its Fourth Republic in 1992, Ghana has embarked on a series of policy initiatives and programmatic interventions aimed at addressing youth unemployment and underemployment. These efforts have spanned various administrations, each introducing or re-shaping programs with the stated goal of empowering young people for national development. This report undertakes a comprehensive analysis of these successive government interventions, examining their objectives, implementation strategies, reported outcomes, and the enduring challenges that have influenced their effectiveness and long-term sustainability from 1992 to the projected landscape of 2025. By critically reviewing the evolution of these policies and programs, this analysis seeks to identify recurring patterns, systemic impediments, and potential pathways toward more robust and sustainable youth employment solutions in Ghana.
II. Evolution of National Youth Policies and Frameworks
Ghana’s approach to youth development and employment has been guided by national policies and strategic frameworks, which have evolved over time to respond to changing demographic realities and economic imperatives.
A. National Youth Policy (NYP) 2010
The National Youth Policy (NYP) of 2010, officially launched in August 2009, served as a foundational document articulating the government’s vision for its young citizens. The policy was themed “Towards an empowered youth, impacting positively on national development.”.12 Its primary intention was to provide comprehensive guidelines for all stakeholders involved in the implementation of policies, programs, and projects aimed at youth development. It also sought to demonstrate Ghana’s commitment to international conventions and charters related to youth.12
The vision of the 2010 NYP was to foster “an empowered youth contributing positively to national development.” To realize this vision, several key objectives were outlined: to empower and actively involve Ghanaian youth in productive activities for individual, community, and national development; to enable each young person to develop their full potential and self-esteem; to institutionalize youth participation at all levels of decision-making to nurture democratic culture; to facilitate knowledge acquisition, sharing, and transfer through domestic and international networking; to inspire creativity, innovation, and self-discovery; and to inculcate a strong sense of self-reliance, patriotism, nationalism, and volunteerism.12 The policy defined youth as individuals aged 15 to 35 years, a definition that resonated with the African Union’s broader categorization.3 A significant priority area within the policy was “Youth in Modern Agriculture,” recognizing agriculture’s substantial contribution to Ghana’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and its potential for employment.12
Despite its comprehensive objectives, a significant critique of the 2010 NYP was its lack of regular review. It remained largely unrevised for nearly a decade, which critics argued rendered it increasingly outdated given the rapid advancements in technology and the evolving needs of young people in a dynamic global landscape.7 This static nature limited its responsiveness to contemporary challenges and opportunities.
B. National Youth Policy 2022-2032
Recognizing the limitations of its predecessor, the Government of Ghana launched a new National Youth Policy for the period 2022-2032. This updated policy, themed “Benefit for youth involves youth; together for a prosperous future,” aims to provide a more current and coordinated framework for youth development.18 Its core objective is to strategically harness the value of the country’s youthful population by creating opportunities and guiding the implementation of relevant projects and programs.18
The 2022-2032 policy is intended to serve as the principal reference document for all state institutions, the private sector, and international development partners in their efforts to support the development of young people in Ghana.18 Its strategic relevance is underscored by its direct alignment with the government’s broader economic agenda, including the Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Development Policies (2021–2025) and the Medium-Term National Development Policy Framework (2022–2025).19 This alignment suggests a more integrated approach to youth development, linking it closely with national economic growth and structural transformation objectives. The updated policy acknowledges the evolving needs of the youth and aims to foster sustainable partnerships with all stakeholders to leverage the creative potential of young Ghanaians 18
III. Major Government Interventions (1992-2025): A Programmatic Review
Ghana’s commitment to youth employment has manifested through a series of direct interventions, each with distinct designs, target demographics, and varying degrees of success and challenges.
A. Early Initiatives (1990s – early 2000s)
The period following Ghana’s return to constitutional rule saw initial efforts to formalize youth employment interventions.
Skills Training and Employment Placement (STEP)
In 2001, the Kufuor administration introduced the Skills Training and Employment Placement (STEP) program. This initiative was designed to provide readily employable skills and create employment opportunities for the youth.6 STEP’s focus on practical skills training was a strategic intervention to address the growing problem of youth unemployment. Building on the experiences of STEP, the government further developed the Technical, Vocational, and Education Testing (TVET) Policy, aiming for a more comprehensive and integrated system to enhance the competitiveness of youth skills.6 Between 2006 and 2008, the Kufuor Administration reported engaging 106,000 youth under various modules, including agri-business, community protection, health extension, and teaching assistance.6
However, evaluations of skills training programs, including those under the broader STEP umbrella, such as the N4G program, revealed mixed outcomes. While N4G, for instance, incorporated best-practice design features like theoretical and on-the-job training, targeting disadvantaged youth, and combining training with mentoring and stipends, it did not lead to significant improvements in core labor market outcomes (employment, hours of work, income) for the average participant.21 Despite consistently positive average effect sizes, the coefficients were statistically insignificant. Nevertheless, the program did induce occupational sorting, with participants more likely to work in their field of specialization, and improved job quality (e.g., written contracts, medical benefits).21 A noteworthy observation from these evaluations was that program stakeholders often held overly optimistic prior beliefs about the program’s impact, which did not significantly adjust even when presented with evidence of circumscribed effectiveness.21 This tendency to overestimate program success can hinder adaptive programming and perpetuate suboptimal interventions.
Rural Enterprise Programme (REP)
The Rural Enterprise Programme (REP), initiated in 1995, represents a long-standing intervention aimed at poverty reduction and livelihood improvement in rural areas by supporting micro and small enterprises (MSEs).22 The program has evolved through three phases, with REP III (2012-2020) focusing on scaling up the impact of earlier phases and aligning with Ghana’s industrial policy to foster economic diversification and employment creation.27 REP’s model is built on three thematic areas: access to business development services (BDS), technology transfer through technical skills training and demonstrations, and access to finance.25
The REP has demonstrated significant positive impacts. It has improved the livelihoods of MSE owners, leading to job creation and increased income. For instance, a field survey indicated that clients’ average monthly income increased from GHȻ455.00 to GHȻ755.00 after receiving REP support.23 REP III alone was estimated to create 100,000 new jobs.27 The program has also been instrumental in promoting skills transfer, training 4,393 master craftsmen and 17,538 apprentices, with many beneficiaries subsequently establishing their own viable businesses.23 Furthermore, the REP has positively contributed to women’s empowerment, equipping rural women with literacy skills and enhancing their entrepreneurial roles, leading to increased nominal income and improved well-being.24 The program’s success in specific geographic areas, such as the Garu-Tempane District, where women constituted half of the clients and were well-represented in new businesses and jobs created, underscores its targeted effectiveness.28
Despite these successes, challenges persisted, particularly concerning access to affordable finance and the high cost of inputs for women entrepreneurs.25 The program’s reliance on linkages with participating financial institutions highlights the importance of a robust financial ecosystem for sustained entrepreneurial growth.
B. National Youth Employment Programme (NYEP) and its Evolution (2005-2015)
The mid-2000s saw the introduction of a flagship youth employment initiative that would undergo significant transformations.
National Youth Employment Programme (NYEP)
The National Youth Employment Programme (NYEP) was established in 2005 and officially inaugurated in October 2006 by the John Kufuor administration. Its primary objective was to address the escalating problem of youth unemployment, which was perceived as a potential threat to national security.6 The NYEP was designed as a stop-gap measure to provide temporary relief and mobilize youth for basic skills and entrepreneurial development.6 The program aimed to create half a million self-employment and wage-earning jobs within three years (2006-2009).31 By February 2011, the NYEP had reportedly recruited, trained, and employed 108,000 youth nationwide.16
However, from its inception, the NYEP operated without legal backing, functioning under the Office of the President.6 This lack of a requisite legal, institutional, and operational framework proved to be a significant impediment to its effectiveness and sustainability.30 Evaluations and studies consistently indicated that the program did not make a substantial impact in addressing the overall youth unemployment situation.17 Challenges included its unsustainable nature due to heavy dependence on government funding without a clear strategy for transitioning beneficiaries into permanent employment, frequent delays in salary payments, and pervasive political interference that led to inefficiencies.11 The program was criticized as an “elite-prescribed programme” with little to no participation from the youth it intended to benefit, leading to missed opportunities for more effective design and implementation.33
Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Agency (GYEEDA)
In October 2012, the NYEP was rebranded and repositioned as the Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Agency (GYEEDA) by a new administration, with the intention of infusing entrepreneurial skills training into its mandate.6 However, the expansion of its scope without proper legal and institutional frameworks exacerbated existing weaknesses.
The GYEEDA era became synonymous with a major corruption scandal, revealing widespread financial irregularities and mismanagement.6 A Ministerial Impact Assessment Committee was formed in 2013 to investigate the malfeasance, which found that “millions of cedis meant for training programs were mismanaged,” turning the agency into a “cash cow for politically connected individuals”.11 Key issues identified included an inadequate institutional/legal framework, absence of a governing board, ill-defined organizational structure, poor corporate governance practices, inadequate recruitment procedures (leading to unqualified personnel and fake certificates), and severe financial control deficiencies such as lack of budgeting, irregular financial statements, and improper allocation of statutory funds.30 The report also highlighted duplication of programs with other institutions like COTVET and NVTI, and a lack of proper value-for-money evaluations.30 The scandal underscored the profound impact of political interference and administrative weaknesses on program integrity and effectiveness.11
Youth Employment Agency (YEA)
Following the GYEEDA scandal and the urgent need for reform, the Youth Employment Agency (YEA) was established under the Youth Employment Act 2015 (Act 887), assented to in March 2015, providing the much-needed legal backing that its predecessors lacked.6 The YEA’s mandate is to oversee the development, coordination, supervision, and facilitation of employment for the youth in Ghana, with the object of creating jobs nationwide.6 The YEA has continued to engage a significant number of beneficiaries. As of October 2022, YEA had engaged 80,735 beneficiaries under its various modules, with a projection to engage 124,500 beneficiaries in 2023.38 The agency provides temporary employment and aims to connect beneficiaries to long-term opportunities through its Job Portals and Job Centres.37 It also offers an “Exit-Fund” to Community Protection Assistants (CPAs) at the end of their two-year program, and has launched a “Work Abroad Programme” to unlock international employment and skill-building opportunities for Ghanaian youth, aligning with SDG 8 (Decent Work) and SDG 10.7 (Orderly Migration).39
Despite the legal framework, YEA continues to face challenges. These include insufficient funds and delays in the release of statutory funds, inadequate resources and logistics for beneficiaries, and delays in allowance payments.37 Political interference and a highly centralized administration system remain attributed challenges.32 Critically, the agency experienced a significant fall in the number of beneficiaries from 472,979 in 2013 (under GYEEDA) to 62,825 in 2016, largely due to institutional weaknesses.10 This fluctuation highlights the ongoing struggle to maintain consistent reach and impact, even with legal mandates.
C. Recent and Ongoing Interventions (2017-2025)
More recent administrations have introduced new initiatives and frameworks, often building on past lessons or proposing novel approaches to tackle persistent youth unemployment.
Nation Builders Corps (NABCO)
Launched in 2018, the Nation Builders Corps (NABCO) was a prominent intervention aimed at placing tertiary graduates in various government institutions, providing them with a stipend.11 The program engaged close to 100,000 youth annually and had nationwide coverage.42 However, NABCO was primarily designed as a temporary fix. A significant criticism was its lack of a clear pathway to permanent jobs.11 After their contracts expired, thousands of beneficiaries found themselves back in the unemployment pool, with little to show for their experience.11 This outcome contributed to disillusionment among the youth, as the program did not offer long-term career prospects.
YouStart Initiative
The YouStart Initiative, announced in the 2022 budget statement, is a flagship program by the Government of Ghana, supported by the World Bank’s Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurship in Productive Sectors (YES) Programme for Results (PforR).9 Its ambitious objective is to create one million jobs in the economy over five years (2022-2027), specifically targeting youth unemployment which has risen following the COVID-19 pandemic.9
YouStart aims to support youth entrepreneurs through financial, technical, and mentoring assistance. The PforR component targets foreign and domestic investors and their employees (with 60% estimated to be under 30), young graduates in industry-led training programs (at least 30% women), and young entrepreneurs aged 18-40 (at least 50% women, 5% Persons with Disabilities).9 Implementation primarily occurs through the District Entrepreneurship Programme (DEP), with an envisioned allocation of GHS3 billion. This provides a combination of training, capacity building, Business Development Services (BDS), access to markets and technology, and business grants.9 Key stakeholders include the Ministry of Finance (MoF), Ministry of Trade and Industry (MOTI), Ghana Enterprises Agency (GEA), and National Entrepreneurship and Innovation Programme (NEIP).9 The program also supports high-growth potential sectors like Automotive, Pharmaceutical, and Garments and Textiles industries, and aims to attract investment and facilitate exports.9
Ghana Women and Youth Employment and Social Cohesion (GWYESCO) Country Programme
The Ghana Women and Youth Employment and Social Cohesion (GWYESCO) Programme, slated for 2026–2028, is a forward-looking initiative by the African Development Bank (AfDB) in collaboration with the Government of Ghana.19 Its overarching objective is to enhance the resilience and living conditions of women and youth through economic inclusion and social cohesion, fostering job creation, entrepreneurship, access to finance, and skills development.19 GWYESCO will focus on three key outcome areas: skills development for enhanced wage and employability, improved access to finance and markets for women and youth-owned Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), and institutional capacity building and policy reforms.19 The program is strategically aligned with existing government reforms, including the Ghana Enterprises Agency (GEA) Act, 2020, the establishment of the Ministry of Youth Development and Empowerment, and major economic programs like the Big Push, Adwumawura Programme, and the National Apprenticeship Programme.19 Its focus on vocational and technical training, entrepreneurial and digital skills, and social cohesion in fragile regions like Northern Ghana demonstrates a comprehensive approach to addressing multifaceted challenges.19
24-Hour Economic Policy
A potentially transformative strategy gaining traction is the proposed 24-Hour Economic Policy, designed to unlock Ghana’s full economic potential and significantly expand employment opportunities, particularly for the youth.1 This policy aims to shift key sectors—such as manufacturing, healthcare, retail, transportation, logistics, ICT, tourism, and hospitality—to operate continuously in shifts around the clock.1
The policy’s objectives for youth employment are multifaceted:
Job Creation: Continuous operations necessitate multiple shifts, inherently increasing the number of available jobs, especially in sectors where youth are already engaged, such as call centers, delivery services, media production, security, healthcare, and digital support services.1 Entrepreneurship Opportunities: The policy is expected to stimulate entrepreneurship by creating demand for locally produced goods, reducing reliance on imports (e.g., significant imports of food, grains, and sugar). This fosters new business models, particularly within the gig and digital economies, which many young Ghanaians are already exploring.1 Upskilling and Digital Inclusion: Meeting the demands of a round-the-clock economy will require substantial investment in vocational and digital skills training, providing opportunities for youth to acquire future-oriented skills like coding, AI, digital marketing, and cybersecurity.1
However, implementing such a policy presents significant challenges, including the need for upgrades in energy reliability, public transportation, internet connectivity, and security infrastructure. Revisions to existing labor laws to accommodate night shifts and cultural resistance to night-time economic activities are also anticipated.1 Its success hinges on a robust multi-stakeholder approach involving government, private sector, and public-private partnerships.1
IV. Thematic Analysis of Intervention Strategies
Ghana’s youth employment interventions, while diverse, tend to coalesce around several key strategic pillars. An examination of these themes reveals both consistent efforts and persistent challenges.
A. Skills Development and Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
A central and enduring theme across successive government interventions has been the emphasis on skills development, particularly through Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET).1 Programs like the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI), Council for Technical and Vocational Training (COTVET), and the Youth Employment Agency (YEA) have consistently focused on providing vocational, technical, entrepreneurial, and digital skills to enhance employability.9 For instance, COTVET’s National Apprenticeship Programme (NAP) aimed to provide employable skills to early school leavers, training 2,394 apprentices in its first phase (2011-2013).52 The YouStart initiative also prioritizes training and capacity building to equip young entrepreneurs.9
Despite these efforts, significant challenges persist in the skills development landscape. A critical issue is the persistent mismatch between the skills acquired through the educational system and the actual demands of the labor market.3 This mismatch is partly attributed to a weak link between educational institutions and the productive sector, insufficient career guidance, and a scarcity of STEM graduates compared to an overproduction in humanities.4 Furthermore, evaluations of TVET institutions reveal low or non-existent quality assurance systems, inadequate teaching and learning facilities, and a lack of competent technical instructors, which hinder the transfer of necessary knowledge and skills.42 Many programs also offer limited opportunities for youth to renew and upgrade their skills and technology in a rapidly changing labor market.10 High illiteracy rates among some participants also pose a challenge to effective teaching methodologies 54
The outcomes of skills training programs have been mixed. While some studies suggest that participation can improve income and living standards for young people, rigorous impact evaluations, such as those for the N4G program (part of STEP), have shown limited direct improvements in core employment outcomes like overall employment rates or income levels for the average participant.17 However, these programs have demonstrated positive effects on occupational sorting, leading individuals to work more in their field of specialization, and have improved job quality through increased access to written contracts and medical benefits.21 This suggests that while skills training may not always directly translate to immediate, broad employment gains, it can enhance the quality and relevance of employment for beneficiaries.
B. Entrepreneurship and Access to Finance
Promoting entrepreneurship and facilitating access to finance have been consistent strategies to address youth unemployment, particularly given the limited capacity of the formal public sector to absorb the growing labor force.1 Initiatives like the YouStart Programme, National Entrepreneurship Innovation Programme (NEIP), and components of the Rural Enterprise Programme (REP) have focused on providing entrepreneurial and digital skills development, business development services (BDS), and financial support.8 The YouStart initiative, for example, offers soft loans, starter packs, and access to markets and technology, with a target of creating one million jobs over five years.9
Despite the strong emphasis on entrepreneurship, access to affordable finance remains a major challenge for aspiring young entrepreneurs.20 Many programs, while offering training, do not provide sufficient support or information on how to secure funding, or they lack adequate seed capital for beneficiaries to start their trades.17 The Graduate Entrepreneurial Business Support Scheme (GEBSS), for instance, became defunct due to inadequate funding, illustrating the vulnerability of such initiatives to financial constraints.10 Moreover, some young people hold high and unrealistic expectations regarding the speed of wealth accumulation through entrepreneurship, which can lead to disillusionment when immediate success is not achieved.55
The private sector is widely recognized as the primary engine for economic growth and job creation in Ghana, accounting for 92% of the total workforce.7 However, public-private partnerships in youth employment have remained limited, and existing policies have not clearly defined the private sector’s role.42 While private sector initiatives often provide high-quality, well-funded entrepreneurship training with competitive grants and mentorship, their reach and coverage are typically limited, primarily concentrated in urban centers and less accessible to rural youth.42 This highlights a critical need for stronger collaboration between the state and the private sector to create a more robust and inclusive entrepreneurial ecosystem.7
C. Formal vs. Informal Sector Employment
The landscape of youth employment in Ghana is heavily dominated by the informal economy. Approximately 80.5% of private sector employment is in the informal sector.55 For many young people, especially those without tertiary education, the informal sector and agriculture often represent the only available employment options, as the number of new vacancies in the formal sector cannot keep pace with the influx of job seekers.46
Employment in the informal sector is characterized by vulnerable employment, irregular earnings, and lower job security.55 While older youth (25-35 years) tend to benefit more from private formal sector employment, a significant majority of younger youth (teens and early 20s) are engaged in the informal sector.55 Public programs like the Youth Employment Agency (YEA) do provide some form of wage employment in the formal sector in collaboration with government Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDAs).46 However, the overall strategy necessitates a concerted effort to strengthen and formalize the informal sector through supportive laws and policies, thereby creating more stable and decent job opportunities.7 This formalization is crucial for improving working conditions, ensuring better earnings, and providing social protections for a large segment of the youth workforce.
V. Cross-Cutting Challenges to Sustainable Youth Employment
Despite continuous governmental efforts and significant investments, sustainable youth employment in Ghana remains elusive due to several entrenched, cross-cutting challenges.
A. Governance, Coordination, and Political Economy
A persistent systemic issue is the fragmentation and duplication of similar youth employment programs across various Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDAs).3 For instance, the Youth Employment Agency (YEA), Rural Enterprise Support Programme (REP), and the Council for Technical and Vocational Training (COTVET) all offer skills development and apprenticeship programs targeting youth, yet they are implemented by different ministries.7 This lack of effective coordination leads to inefficient resource allocation, diluted impact, and a fragmented approach to a holistic national challenge.3
The effectiveness of interventions has been severely hampered by political interference and administrative weaknesses. Many programs have “collapsed under the weight of poor planning, mismanagement, and political gimmickry”.11 The history of the National Youth Employment Programme (NYEP) and its successor, the Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Agency (GYEEDA), vividly illustrates these issues. The NYEP/GYEEDA lacked a robust legal and institutional framework from its inception, leading to an “ill-defined/inadequate organizational structure,” “poor corporate governance practices,” “inadequate recruitment procedures,” and severe “poor/inadequate financial controls”.30 The GYEEDA scandal, where “millions of cedis meant for training programs were mismanaged,” transformed the agency into a “cash cow for politically connected individuals”.11 This episode starkly demonstrates how political machinations and administrative lapses can divert resources and undermine the very purpose of public interventions.
A critical observation emerging from these interventions is the recurring pattern where every new government tends to scrap the previous initiative and rebrand it.11 This “revolving door” approach, driven by political expediency and the desire for new administrations to claim ownership of initiatives, has profound negative consequences. It leads to a significant waste of resources and institutional knowledge, as lessons learned from previous programs are discarded rather than built upon.11 This lack of continuity and iterative improvement means that fundamental systemic issues, such as poor planning, mismanagement, and corruption, are not adequately addressed but rather recur under new names.11 Even legally backed agencies like YEA continue to face challenges attributed to “party politics, highly centralized administration system, corruption, and inadequate financial resource”.32 This prioritization of short-term, visible interventions over long-term, sustained strategic development fundamentally undermines the possibility of achieving sustainable youth employment. True sustainability requires political consensus and a commitment to a national strategy that transcends electoral cycles, allowing for consistent policy implementation, adaptive learning, and the accumulation of institutional expertise. Without this, Ghana will continue to launch “flashy programs and interventions… only to collapse under the weight of poor planning, mismanagement, and political gimmickry”.57
B. Funding and Long-Term Viability
The financial sustainability of youth employment programs in Ghana presents another significant challenge. Most interventions are heavily reliant on government funding, often designed without a clear plan to transition beneficiaries into permanent roles in the private sector.11 This creates a dependency on state coffers and raises serious concerns about their long-term viability.
Inadequate and inconsistent funding is a recurrent problem. Programs like YEA frequently suffer from “insufficient funds and delay in the release of statutory funds”.37 The Graduate Entrepreneurial Business Support Scheme (GEBSS), for example, became defunct in 2014 specifically due to inadequate funding, highlighting how financial constraints can derail promising initiatives.10 Public sector programs generally contend with “limited and irregular government funding,” which impedes their ability to scale up or maintain operations effectively.42
There is also a notable lack of long-term investment in beneficiaries beyond initial training. Many programs do not provide sufficient support with “seed capital to start the trade” or offer sustained post-training support.17 This means that even if initial skills are acquired, the financial ecosystem necessary for sustained entrepreneurial activity or long-term employment is weak, leaving many trained youth unable to leverage their new skills into viable livelihoods.
A critical observation concerning funding is the prevalence of what can be termed the “temporary fix” trap. The recurring description of programs like NABCO as a “temporary fix” 11 and the consistent critique that programs lack “exit strategies” 42 or “pathways to permanent jobs” 11 points to a systemic issue in the design and intent of many interventions. Governments, under pressure to address high unemployment figures, often opt for short-term, large-scale employment schemes that provide immediate, visible relief but do not build sustainable career paths. This approach is frequently coupled with “limited and irregular government funding” 42, making long-term planning and investment inherently difficult. The consequence is that thousands of youth find themselves “back in the unemployment pool” 11 after their temporary contracts expire, leading to widespread disillusionment and a perception of futility among the target demographic. This “temporary fix” trap prevents Ghana from building a robust and resilient labor market. Instead of addressing the root causes of unemployment, such as skills mismatch or insufficient formal sector growth, these programs primarily manage symptoms. A fundamental shift is required towards designing interventions with clear, well-funded, and integrated long-term pathways to sustainable employment or entrepreneurship, rather than merely providing short-term relief.
C. Data Gaps and Evaluation Deficiencies
A pervasive challenge undermining effective policy-making and program adaptation is the critical absence of systematic documentation and rigorous evaluation of youth employment initiatives.3 Empirical data on the actual impact of both public and private sector programs are generally unavailable because comprehensive evaluations have not been consistently conducted.42
Specifically, there is a notable absence of tracer studies, which are crucial for tracking beneficiaries after they exit programs to assess their long-term employment outcomes, income changes, and overall well-being.42 Without such studies, it becomes exceedingly difficult to ascertain the true effectiveness and sustainability of interventions beyond their immediate implementation period. Furthermore, information on critical cost parameters, such as cost per trainee and operational and investment costs over program durations, is limited, hindering cost-benefit analyses and efficient resource allocation.42 The impact of newer or improved apprenticeship models, such as those implemented through projects like the Youth Inclusive Entrepreneurial Development Initiative for Employment (YIEDIE), often remains unassessed, preventing evidence-based scaling or replication.42
Compounding these evaluation gaps is an outdated and inefficient labor market information system (LMIS).4 This deficiency means that there is a lack of regular, timely, accurate, and disaggregated data on youth job seekers by location, gender, skills, and capabilities.4 Such information is vital for informing policy and funding decisions and for designing appropriate and tailored employment programs that respond to specific market needs and demographic realities. The LMIS is currently inadequate in effectively connecting job seekers with prospective employers and providing the necessary statistics for effective policy monitoring.4
A critical observation here is what can be characterized as the blind spots of policy due to a lack of data-driven adaptation. The consistent failure to conduct systematic evaluations and tracer studies, coupled with an inefficient labor market information system, creates significant informational vacuums for policymakers. This absence of robust empirical evidence means that decision-makers often operate without a clear understanding of what interventions truly work, for whom, and why.7 This deficiency hinders adaptive programming, where policies and programs are continuously refined based on performance data. Consequently, suboptimal labor market interventions may persist, and resources may be repeatedly allocated to programs that do not yield the desired long-term outcomes, leading to wasted investments and continued high rates of youth unemployment.7 This lack of an evidence-based approach perpetuates a cycle of trial and error, rather than a strategic, informed progression towards sustainable youth employment.
VI. Conclusions and Recommendations
A. Synthesized Conclusions
The analysis of successive government interventions in Ghana from 1992 to 2025 reveals a persistent commitment to addressing youth unemployment, a critical socio-economic imperative given the nation’s youthful demographic. Over three decades, Ghana has implemented a diverse array of programs, from early initiatives like STEP and REP to the more recent YouStart and the proposed 24-Hour Economy policy. These interventions have consistently aimed to provide skills training, foster entrepreneurship, and create job opportunities, often with significant reported beneficiary numbers and some positive impacts on livelihoods and income, particularly in the rural sector.
However, a recurring pattern of challenges has significantly undermined the sustainability and long-term effectiveness of these efforts. These challenges are deeply rooted in issues of governance, funding, and data management. The cyclical nature of policy, characterized by the rebranding or abandonment of previous initiatives with each new administration, has led to a considerable waste of resources and institutional knowledge. This “revolving door” approach prevents the accumulation of sustained progress and the iterative refinement of programs based on lessons learned. Furthermore, many interventions have fallen into a “temporary fix” trap, providing short-term relief without clear, well-funded pathways to permanent employment or sustainable entrepreneurship, leading to disillusionment among beneficiaries who often find themselves back in the unemployment pool. Finally, the pervasive lack of systematic impact evaluations, tracer studies, and an efficient labor market information system creates critical blind spots for policy-making. Without robust data, it is difficult to identify truly effective interventions, adapt programs to evolving market needs, or ensure accountability for public investments, perpetuating a cycle of suboptimal outcomes.
The opportunity presented by Ghana’s demographic dividend remains immense. Yet, the continued high rates of youth unemployment and underemployment underscore the urgent need for a fundamental shift in approach. Unaddressed, this challenge poses a significant threat to national security and long-term economic stability.
B. Recommendations for Sustainable Youth Employment
To break the cycle of temporary fixes and achieve sustainable youth employment, the following recommendations are put forth:
Policy Cohesion and Continuity: Ghana must develop and commit to a national, bipartisan youth employment strategy that transcends political cycles. This strategy should be enshrined in clear legal frameworks and institutional mandates, ensuring that core objectives and successful programs are sustained and built upon, rather than being abandoned or rebranded with changes in government.7 This requires fostering political consensus and long-term vision for human capital development. Strengthen Governance and Accountability: Implement robust financial controls, transparent recruitment procedures, and effective performance management systems within all youth employment agencies. Lessons from past challenges, particularly the GYEEDA scandal, must inform the establishment of stringent accountability mechanisms to prevent mismanagement and corruption.11 This includes empowering oversight bodies and ensuring that recruitment is based on merit and competence. Prioritize Private Sector-Led Growth: Recognize and actively foster the private sector as the primary engine for sustainable job creation. This involves creating a more conducive business environment, promoting aggressive public-private partnerships for large-scale incubators and accelerators, and offering incentives for industries to hire, train, and retain young workers.4 Policies should clearly define the private sector’s complementary role in job creation. Demand-Driven Skills Development: Systematically align educational curricula, especially Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), with the evolving demands of the labor market. This requires continuous skills gap assessments, expanding quality internships and modern apprenticeships, and investing significantly in digital skills training (e.g., coding, AI, cybersecurity).1 Comprehensive career guidance and counseling should be integrated into the education system to better prepare youth for the transition to work. Enhanced Entrepreneurial Ecosystem: Move beyond merely providing loans to young entrepreneurs. Develop a holistic entrepreneurial ecosystem that includes sustained mentorship, facilitates access to markets and technology, and provides comprehensive business development services.1 Focus on supporting sustainable self-employment and formalizing promising informal sector ventures. Robust Monitoring and Evaluation: Establish a comprehensive, centralized labor market information system (LMIS) capable of providing disaggregated, real-time data on labor supply and demand.3 Mandate regular, independent impact evaluations and tracer studies for all youth employment programs to assess their long-term outcomes, cost-effectiveness, and inform adaptive policy adjustments. This evidence-based approach is fundamental to moving beyond assumptions and ensuring that resources are directed towards interventions that demonstrably yield sustainable results. Genuine Youth and Community Participation: Ensure meaningful involvement of youth in the design, implementation, and evaluation of programs intended to benefit them. This moves beyond tokenistic participation to genuine co-creation, leveraging the energy, creativity, and unique perspectives of young people.11 Foster community-level engagement to ensure programs are contextually relevant and address local needs, particularly in rural areas.
By strategically addressing these systemic challenges and adopting a long-term, evidence-based, and collaborative approach, Ghana can transform its youth bulge from a potential liability into a powerful engine for resilient, inclusive, and sustainable economic development.
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